Crosshatching Is Used to Create a Work of Art

Line

A line is defined as a marker that connects the space betwixt two points, taking any grade forth the way.

Learning Objectives

Compare and contrast different uses of line in art

Primal Takeaways

Primal Points

• Actual lines are lines that are physically present, existing equally solid connections between i or more than points.
• Implied line refers to the path that the viewer 's eye takes equally it follows shapes, colors, and forms along any given path.
• Straight or archetype lines provide stability and construction to a composition and tin can exist vertical, horizontal, or diagonal on a work's surface.
• Expressive lines refer to curved marks that increase the sense of dynamism of a work of art.
• The outline or contour lines create a border or path around the edge of a shape, thereby outlining and defining it. "Cross contour lines" delineate differences in the features of a surface.
• Hatch lines are a series of short lines repeated in intervals, typically in a unmarried direction, and are used to add shading and texture to surfaces, while cross-hatch lines provide additional texture and tone to the image surface and can be oriented in any direction.

Primal Terms

• texture:The feel or shape of a surface or substance; the smoothness, roughness, softness, etc. of something.
• cross-hatching:A method of showing shading by ways of multiple small-scale lines that intersect.
• line:A path through 2 or more than points.

The line is an essential element of art, divers as a mark that connects the space between two points, taking whatever form forth the mode. Lines are used most oft to define shape in two-dimensional works and could be chosen the about ancient, as well equally the most universal, forms of marking making.

There are many dissimilar types of lines, all characterized by their lengths being greater than their width, as well as by the paths that they take. Depending on how they are used, lines help to determine the movement, direction, and energy of a piece of work of art. The quality of a line refers to the grapheme that is presented past a line in order to breathing a surface to varying degrees.

Actual lines are lines that are physically present, existing equally solid connections between ane or more points, while unsaid lines refer to the path that the viewer's middle takes as it follows shape, color, and class within an fine art work. Implied lines give works of art a sense of motion and keep the viewer engaged in a composition. We tin see numerous implied lines in Jacques-Louis David'southward Oath of the Horatii, connecting the figures and deportment of the piece by leading the middle of the viewer through the unfolding drama.

Jacques-Louis David, Oath of the Horatii, 1784: Many implied lines connect the figures and action of the piece by leading the centre of the viewer through the unfolding drama.

Direct or classic lines add stability and structure to a limerick and can be vertical, horizontal, or diagonal on the surface of the work. Expressive lines refer to curved marks that increase the sense of dynamism of a piece of work of art. These types of lines oftentimes follow an undetermined path of sinuous curves. The outline or contour lines create a border or path around the edge of a shape, thereby outlining and defining information technology. Cantankerous profile lines delineate differences in the features of a surface and can give the illusion of three dimensions or a sense of course or shading.

Hatch lines are a series of short lines repeated in intervals, typically in a single direction, and are used to add shading and texture to surfaces. Cross-hatch lines provide additional texture and tone to the image surface and can be oriented in any direction. Layers of cantankerous-hatching can add rich texture and book to image surfaces.

Light and Value

Value refers to the use of calorie-free and dark in art.

Learning Objectives

Explain the creative use of light and dark (also known as "value")

Key Takeaways

Key Points

• In painting, value changes are achieved by adding black or white to a color.
• Value in fine art is also sometimes referred to as " tint " for calorie-free hues and "shade" for dark hues.
• Values near the lighter stop of the spectrum are termed "high-keyed" while those on the darker finish are called "depression-keyed."
• In 2-dimensional art works, the utilize of value can aid to give a shape the illusion of mass or volume .
• Chiaroscuro was a common technique in Bizarre painting and refers to clear tonal contrasts exemplified past very high-keyed whites, placed directly against very low-keyed darks.

Cardinal Terms

• chiaroscuro:An creative technique popularized during the Renaissance, referring to the use of exaggerated light contrasts in order to create the illusion of volume.

The use of low-cal and dark in art is called value. Value can be subdivided into tint (light hues) and shade (nighttime hues). In painting, which uses subtractive colour, value changes are achieved by calculation black or white to a color. Artists may likewise employ shading, which refers to a more subtle manipulation of value. The value scale is used to bear witness the standard variations in tones . Values near the lighter end of the spectrum are termed high-keyed, while those on the darker end are low-keyed.

Value scale: The value scale represents different degrees of low-cal used in artwork.

In 2-dimensional artworks, the utilize of value tin can help to give a shape the illusion of mass or volume. It will also give the entire composition a sense of lighting. High contrast refers to the placing of lighter areas directly against much darker ones, and so their deviation is showcased, creating a dramatic effect. High contrast too refers to the presence of more blacks than white or gray. Low-contrast images consequence from placing mid-range values together so in that location is non much visible difference between them, creating a more than subtle mood.

In Baroque painting, the technique of chiaroscuro was used to produce highly dramatic furnishings in art. Chiaroscuro, which ways literally "light-nighttime" in Italian, refers to clear tonal contrasts exemplified by very loftier-keyed whites, placed straight against very low-keyed darks. Candlelit scenes were common in Baroque painting equally they effectively produced this dramatic type of effect. Caravaggio used a loftier contrast palette in such works equally The Deprival of St. Peter to create his expressive chiaroscuro scene.

Caravaggio, The Denial of St. Peter, 1610: Caravaggio's The Denial of St. Peter is an excellent case of how calorie-free can exist manipulated in artwork.

Color

In the visual arts, color theory is a torso of practical guidance to colour mixing and the visual impacts of specific color combinations.

Learning Objectives

Express the near important elements of colour theory and artists' utilize of color

Primal Takeaways

Key Points

• Color theory get-go appeared in the 17th century, when Isaac Newton discovered that white light could be passed through a prism and divided into the full spectrum of colors.
• The spectrum of colors independent in white low-cal are carmine, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo , and violet.
• Color theory divides color into the " primary colors " of red, yellow, and blueish, which cannot be mixed from other pigments, and the "secondary colors" of green, orange, and violet, which upshot from dissimilar combinations of the primary colors.
• Primary and secondary colors are combined in diverse mixtures to create 3rd colors.
• Complementary colors are constitute contrary each other on the color wheel and represent the strongest contrast for those item 2 colors.

Key Terms

• complementary color:A colour which is regarded equally the contrary of some other on the colour bike (i.due east., red and green, yellow and purple, and orangish and bluish).
• value:The relative darkness or lightness of a color in a specific area of a painting or other visual art.
• primary color:Whatsoever of three colors which, when added to or subtracted from others in different amounts, can generate all other colors.
• tint:A colour considered with reference to other very similar colors. Red and blue are dissimilar colors, only ii shades of ruby-red are different tints.
• gradation:A passing by pocket-sized degrees from 1 tone or shade, as of color, to another.
• hue:A color, or shade of color.

Colour is a fundamental artistic element which refers to the utilize of hue in art and design. It is the nearly complex of the elements considering of the wide array of combinations inherent to information technology. Color theory kickoff appeared in the 17th century when Isaac Newton discovered that white light could be passed through a prism and divided into the full spectrum of colors. The spectrum of colors contained in white light are, in order: cherry-red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet.

Color theory subdivides color into the "principal colors" of cerise, xanthous, and bluish, which cannot be mixed from other pigments; and the "secondary colors" of greenish, orange and violet, which effect from different combinations of the primary colors. Main and secondary colors are combined in various mixtures to create "3rd colors." Color theory is centered around the colour wheel, a diagram that shows the relationship of the various colors to each other .

Colour wheel: The color bike is a diagram that shows the relationship of the various colors to each other.

Color " value " refers to the relative lightness or darkness of a color. In addition, "tint" and "shade" are important aspects of colour theory and consequence from lighter and darker variations in value, respectively. "Tone" refers to the gradation or subtle changes of a color on a lighter or darker calibration. "Saturation" refers to the intensity of a color.

Additive and Subtractive Colour

Additive color is colour created by mixing scarlet, light-green, and blue lights. Television screens, for example, utilise condiment color equally they are fabricated up of the master colors of red, blue and greenish (RGB). Subtractive colour,  or "process color," works as the reverse of additive colour and the main colors go cyan, magenta, xanthous, and black (CMYK). Common applications of subtractive color tin be constitute in printing and photography.

Complementary Colour

Complementary colors can exist found directly reverse each other on the color bicycle (royal and yellow, green and scarlet, orange and blue). When placed next to each other, these pairs create the strongest contrast for those particular two colors.

Warm and Cool Color

The distinction between warm and cool colors has been important since at to the lowest degree the late 18th century. The contrast, as traced past etymologies in the Oxford English Dictionary, seems related to the observed contrast in landscape light, betwixt the "warm" colors associated with daylight or sunset and the "absurd" colors associated with a gray or overcast day. Warm colors are the hues from red through yellow, browns and tans included. Cool colors, on the other manus, are the hues from blue greenish through bluish violet, with almost grays included. Colour theory has described perceptual and psychological effects to this contrast. Warm colors are said to accelerate or announced more agile in a painting, while cool colors tend to recede. Used in interior design or fashion, warm colors are said to arouse or stimulate the viewer , while cool colors at-home and relax.

Texture

Texture refers to the tactile quality of the surface of an art object.

Learning Objectives

Recognize the utilise of texture in art

Key Takeaways

Fundamental Points

• Visual texture refers to an implied sense of texture that the artist creates through the use of various creative elements such equally line , shading, and color.
• Actual texture refers to the physical rendering or the real surface qualities we tin can notice by touching an object.
• Visible brushstrokes and different amounts of paint will create a physical texture that can add to the expressiveness of a painting and draw attention to specific areas inside it.
• It is possible for an artwork to contain numerous visual textures merely however remain polish to the bear on.

Fundamental Terms

• tactile:Tangible; perceptible to the sense of touch.

Texture

Texture in art stimulates the senses of sight and touch and refers to the tactile quality of the surface of the fine art. It is based on the perceived texture of the sheet or surface, which includes the application of the paint. In the context of artwork, at that place are two types of texture: visual and actual. Visual texture refers to an implied sense of texture that the creative person creates through the use of various artistic elements such every bit line, shading and color. Bodily texture refers to the physical rendering or the real surface qualities nosotros tin can notice by touching an object, such as paint awarding or three-dimensional art.

It is possible for an artwork to contain numerous visual textures, nonetheless still remain smooth to the touch. Take for example Realist or Illusionist works, which rely on the heavy utilise of paint and varnish, yet maintain an utterly smooth surface. In Jan Van Eyck'due south painting "The Virgin of Chancellor Rolin" we can detect a bully deal of texture in the clothing and robes particularly, while the surface of the work remains very smooth .

Jan van Eyck, The Virgin of Chancellor Rolin, 1435: The Virgin of Chancellor Rolin has a great deal of texture in the clothing and robes, simply the actual surface of the piece of work is very smooth.

Paintings oftentimes use actual texture as well, which we tin can observe in the physical application of paint. Visible brushstrokes and dissimilar amounts of pigment will create a texture that adds to the expressiveness of a painting and describe attention to specific areas within it. The artist Vincent van Gogh is known to accept used a great deal of bodily texture in his paintings, noticeable in the thick awarding of paint in such paintings equally Starry Nighttime.

Vincent van Gogh, The Starry Dark, 1889: The Starry Night contains a great bargain of bodily texture through the thick application of paint.

Shape and Volume

Shape refers to an expanse in a two-dimensional space that is defined by edges; volume is three-dimensional, exhibiting height, width, and depth.

Learning Objectives

Define shape and volume and identify means they are represented in art

Key Takeaways

Key Points

• "Positive infinite " refers to the infinite of the defined shape or effigy.
• "Negative infinite" refers to the space that exists around and between one or more shapes.
• A " airplane " in art refers to whatever area inside space.
• " Grade " is a concept that is related to shape and tin can exist created past combining two or more shapes, resulting in a three-dimensional shape.
• Art makes use of both actual and implied volume .
• Shape, volume, and infinite, whether actual or unsaid, are the basis of the perception of reality.

Key Terms

• form:The shape or visible structure of an creative expression.
• volume:A unit of three-dimensional measure of space that comprises a length, a width, and a summit.
• plane:A flat surface extending infinitely in all directions (e.g., horizontal or vertical plane).

Shape refers to an expanse in two-dimensional space that is divers by edges. Shapes are, past definition, always flat in nature and can be geometric (east.g., a circle, square, or pyramid) or organic (e.yard., a leaf or a chair). Shapes can be created by placing two unlike textures , or shape-groups, next to each other, thereby creating an enclosed area, such equally a painting of an object floating in water.

"Positive space" refers to the infinite of the divers shape, or figure. Typically, the positive space is the subject of an artwork. "Negative space" refers to the infinite that exists around and between one or more shapes. Positive and negative infinite tin become difficult to distinguish from each other in more abstract works.

A "aeroplane" refers to any surface area within infinite. In two-dimensional art, the " motion-picture show aeroplane " is the flat surface that the image is created upon, such as newspaper, canvas, or wood. Iii-dimensional figures may be depicted on the flat picture airplane through the use of the artistic elements to imply depth and volume, every bit seen in the painting Pocket-sized Bouquet of Flowers in a Ceramic Vase by Jan Brueghel the Elderberry.

Jan Brueghel the Elderberry, Small Bouquet of Flowers in a Ceramic Vase, 1599: Three-dimensional figures may be depicted on the apartment picture plane through the utilise of the creative elements to imply depth and book.

"Form" is a concept that is related to shape. Combining two or more shapes tin can create a three-dimensional shape. Form is e'er considered three-dimensional as it exhibits volume—or superlative, width, and depth. Fine art makes utilize of both actual and implied volume.

While three-dimensional forms, such as sculpture, have volume inherently, volume tin also be simulated, or implied, in a two-dimensional work such as a painting. Shape, volume, and space—whether actual or implied—are the basis of the perception of reality.

Fourth dimension and Move

Motion, a principle of fine art, is a tool artists use to organize the artistic elements in a piece of work; it is employed in both static and time-based mediums.

Learning Objectives

Name some techniques and mediums used by artists to convey motion in both static and fourth dimension-based art forms

Cardinal Takeaways

Key Points

• Techniques such every bit scale and proportion are used to create the feeling of movement or the passing of time in static a visual piece.
• The placement of a repeated element in unlike area within an artwork is some other way to imply motion and the passing of time.
• Visual experiments in time and motion were commencement produced in the mid-19th century, and the photographer Eadweard Muybridge is well-known for his sequential shots.
• The time-based mediums of picture show, video, kinetic sculpture , and performance art use time and move past their very definitions.

Central Terms

• frames per second:The number of times an imaging device produces unique consecutive images (frames) in one 2nd. Abbreviation: FPS.
• static:Stock-still in place; having no motion.

Motion, or movement, is considered to be i of the "principles of fine art"; that is, ane of the tools artists use to organize the artistic elements in a piece of work of art. Motion is employed in both static and in time-based mediums and can bear witness a direct action or the intended path for the viewer 's eye to follow through a piece.

Techniques such as scale and proportion are used to create the feeling of motion or the passing of time in static visual artwork. For instance, on a flat motion-picture show plane , an image that is smaller and lighter colored than its surroundings will appear to be in the groundwork. Another technique for implying motion and/or time is the placement of a repeated element in different areas within an artwork.

Visual experiments in time and motion were first produced in the mid-19th century. The photographer Eadweard Muybridge is well known for his sequential shots of humans and animals walking, running, and jumping, which he displayed together to illustrate the motion of his subjects. Marcel Duchamp's Nude Descending a Staircase, No. 2 exemplifies an absolute feeling of motion from the upper left to lower correct corner of the slice.

Marcel Duchamp, Nude Descending a Staircase, No. 2, 1912: This work represents Duchamp's conception of movement and time.

While static art forms accept the ability to imply or suggest fourth dimension and motion, the time-based mediums of film, video, kinetic sculpture, and performance fine art demonstrate time and motion by their very definitions. Moving-picture show is many static images that are chop-chop passed through a lens. Video is substantially the same process, only digitally-based and with fewer frames per 2nd . Operation art takes place in existent time and makes use of existent people and objects, much like theater. Kinetic art is art that moves, or depends on motility, for its upshot. All of these mediums use time and motion as a key aspect of their forms of expression.

Chance, Improvisation, and Spontaneity

Dadaism, Surrealism, and the Fluxus motion all relied on the elements of run a risk, improvisation, and spontaneity as tools for making art works.

Learning Objectives

Describe how Dadaism, Surrealism, and the Fluxus movement relied on risk, improvisation, and spontaneity

Cardinal Takeaways

Key Points

• Dadaists are known for their "automatic writing" or stream of consciousness writing, which highlights the creativity of the unconscious mind.
• Surrealist works, much like Dadaist works, ofttimes feature an element of surprise, unexpected juxtaposition , and tapping into the unconscious listen.
• Surrealists are known for having invented " exquisite corpse" drawing.
• The Fluxus movement was known for its " happenings ," which were operation events or situations that could take place anywhere, in whatever form , and relied heavily on chance, improvisation, and audition participation.

Primal Terms

• happening:A spontaneous or improvised event, especially one that involves audience participation.
• assemblage:A drove of things which have been gathered together..

Hazard, improvisation, and spontaneity are elements that tin exist used to create art, or they can be the very purpose of the artwork itself. Any medium tin can employ these elements at any indicate within the artistic process.

Marcel Duchamp, Urinal, 1917: Marcel Duchamp's Urinal is an example of a "fix-made," which were objects that were purchased or establish and then declared fine art.

Dadaism

Dadaism was an art movement popular in Europe in the early 20th century. It was started past artists and poets in Zurich, Switzerland with strong anti-war and left-leaning sentiments. The movement rejected logic and reason and instead prized irrationality, nonsense, and intuition. Marcel Duchamp was a dominant member of the Dadaist move, known for exhibiting "set-mades," which were objects that were purchased or found and then declared art.

Dadaists used what was readily available to create what was termed an "assemblage," using items such every bit photographs, trash, stickers, passenger vehicle passes, and notes. The piece of work of the Dadaists involved chance, improvisation, and spontaneity to create art. They are known for using "automatic writing" or stream of consciousness writing, which oftentimes took nonsensical forms, but allowed for the opportunity of potentially surprising juxtapositions and unconscious inventiveness.

Surrealism

The Surrealist movement, which developed out of Dadaism primarily every bit a political move, featured an element of surprise, unexpected juxtaposition and the tapping of the unconscious listen. Andre Breton, an important fellow member of the motility, wrote the Surrealist manifesto, defining it as follows:

"Surrealism, due north. Pure psychic automatism , by which one proposes to express, either verbally, in writing, or by any other style, the real functioning of thought. Dictation of idea in the absenteeism of all control exercised by reason, outside of all artful and moral preoccupation. "

Like Dadaism before it, the Surrealist motion stressed the unimportance of reason and planning and instead relied heavily upon risk and surprise as a tool to harness the creativity of the unconscious listen. Surrealists are known for having invented "exquisite corpse" cartoon, an exercise where words and images are collaboratively assembled, i later another. Many Surrealist techniques, including exquisite corpse cartoon, allowed for the playful creation of art through assigning value to spontaneous production.

The Fluxus movement

The Fluxus move of the 1960s was highly influenced past Dadaism. Fluxus was an international network of artists that skillfully blended together many unlike disciplines, and whose work was characterized past the use of an extreme do-it-yourself (DIY) aesthetic and heavily intermedia artworks. In improver, Fluxus was known for its "happenings," which were multi-disciplinary performance events or situations that could take identify anywhere. Audition participation was essential in a happening, and therefore relied on a great bargain of surprise and improvisation. Central elements of happenings were oftentimes planned, but artists left room for improvisation, which eliminated the purlieus between the artwork and the viewer , thus making the audition an important part of the art.

Inclusion of All Five Senses

The inclusion of the five human senses in a single piece of work takes place most often in installation and functioning fine art.

Learning Objectives

Explain how installation and performance art include the v senses of the viewer

Primal Takeaways

Key Points

• In contemporary art, it is quite common for piece of work to cater to the senses of sight, touch, and hearing, while information technology is somewhat less common to address odor and gustatory modality.
• "Gesamtkunstwerk," or "total work of art," is a German word that refers to an artwork that attempts to address all five human senses.
• Installation art is a genre of 3-dimensional artwork that is designed to transform the viewer 'south perception of a space .
• Virtual reality is a term that refers to calculator-simulated environments.

Key Terms

• happening:A spontaneous or improvised outcome, particularly one that involves audience participation.
• virtual reality:A reality based in the computer.

The inclusion of the v human senses in a single work takes place nigh often in installation and performance-based art. In addition, works that strive to include all senses at once mostly make utilize of some form of interactivity, as the sense of gustatory modality clearly must involve the participation of the viewer. Historically, this attention to all senses was reserved to ritual and ceremony . In contemporary art, it is quite mutual for work to cater to the senses of sight, affect, and hearing, while somewhat less common for art to address the senses of smell and taste.

The German language word "Gesamtkunstwerk," meaning "total work of art," refers to a genre of artwork that attempts to address all 5 homo senses. The concept was brought to prominence past the German language opera composer Richard Wagner in 1849. Wagner staged an opera that sought to unite the art forms, which he felt had become overly disparate. Wagner's operas paid swell attending to every detail in guild to achieve a state of total artistic immersion. "Gesamkunstwerk" is now an accustomed English language term relating to aesthetics , but has evolved from Wagner's definition to hateful the inclusion of the five senses in art.

Installation art is a genre of iii-dimensional artwork that is designed to transform the viewer's perception of a infinite. Beach by Rachel Whiteread exemplifies this type of transformation. The term mostly pertains to an interior space, while Land Art typically refers to an outdoor space, though there is some overlap betwixt these terms. The Fluxus motility of the 1960s is key to the development of installation and performance fine art equally mediums.

Rachel Whiteread, Embankment, 2005: Whiteread's installation Embankment is a type of art designed to transform the viewer's perception of space.

"Virtual reality" is a term that refers to computer-imitation environments. Currently, most virtual reality environments are visual experiences, but some simulations include boosted sensory information. Immersive virtual reality has adult in recent years with the improvement of engineering science and is increasingly addressing the v senses within a virtual realm. Artists have been exploring the possibilities of these imitation and virtual realities with the expansion of the discipline of cyberarts, though what constitutes cyberart continues to be upwards for debate. Environments such equally the virtual world of 2nd Life are by and large accepted, but whether or not video games should be considered fine art remains undecided.

Compositional Residual

Compositional rest refers to the placement of the artistic elements in relation to each other inside a work of art.

Learning Objectives

Categorize the elements of compositional balance in a work of art

Key Takeaways

Fundamental Points

• A harmonious compositional balance involves arranging elements so that no i part of a work overpowers or seems heavier than any other role.
• The three most common types of compositional remainder are symmetrical, asymmetrical, and radial .
• When balanced, a composition appears stable and visually right. Just equally symmetry relates to aesthetic preference and reflects an intuitive sense for how things "should" appear, the overall balance of a given composition contributes to outside judgments of the work.

Key Terms

• radial:Arranged like rays that radiate from, or converge to, a common heart.
• symmetry:Exact correspondence on either side of a dividing line, aeroplane, center, or axis. The satisfying arrangement of a balanced distribution of the elements of a whole.
• asymmetry:Want of symmetry, or proportion betwixt the parts of a matter, especially want of bilateral symmetry. Lacking a mutual mensurate betwixt ii objects or quantities; Incommensurability. That which causes something to non be symmetrical.

Compositional balance refers to the placement of the elements of art (colour, grade , line , shape, space , texture , and value) in relation to each other. When counterbalanced, a composition appears more than stable and visually pleasing. Just every bit symmetry relates to aesthetic preference and reflects an intuitive sense for how things "should" appear, the overall remainder of a given composition contributes to outside judgments of the work.

Creating a harmonious compositional balance involves arranging elements so that no single part of a piece of work overpowers or seems heavier than whatever other role. The three most common types of compositional balance are symmetrical, asymmetrical, and radial.

Compositional residuum: The three mutual types of balance are symmetric, disproportionate, and radial.

Symmetrical balance is the most stable, in a visual sense, and generally conveys a sense of harmonious or aesthetically pleasing proportionality. When both sides of an artwork on either side of the horizontal or vertical axis of the motion-picture show airplane are the aforementioned in terms of the sense that is created by the arrangement of the elements of art, the work is said to showroom this type of balance. The opposite of symmetry is asymmetry .

Leonardo da Vinci, Vitruvian Man, 1487: Leonardo da Vinci's Vitruvian Human is often used as a representation of symmetry in the human trunk and, past extension, the natural universe.

Asymmetry is defined as the absence of, or a violation of, the principles of symmetry. Examples of disproportion appear commonly in architecture. Although pre-mod architectural styles tended to place an emphasis on symmetry (except where extreme site weather or historical developments lead abroad from this classical ideal), modernistic and postmodern architects ofttimes used disproportion every bit a design element. For instance, while most bridges utilize a symmetrical form due to intrinsic simplicities of design, analysis, fabrication, and economical employ of materials, a number of modern bridges have deliberately departed from this, either in response to site-specific considerations or to create a dramatic blueprint statement. .

Oakland Bay Bridge: Eastern span replacement of the San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge reflects asymmetrical architectural blueprint.

Radial balance refers to circular elements in compositions. In classical geometry, a radius of a circle or sphere is whatever line segment from its middle to its perimeter. By extension, the radius of a circumvolve or sphere is the length of any such segment, which is one-half the diameter. The radius may exist more than half the bore, which is usually divers every bit the maximum distance betwixt any two points of the figure. The inradius of a geometric figure is usually the radius of the largest circle or sphere independent in it. The inner radius of a ring, tube or other hollow object is the radius of its crenel. The name "radial" or "radius" comes from Latin radius, meaning "ray" just also the spoke of a circular chariot cycle.

Rhythm

Artists use rhythm every bit a tool to guide the eye of the viewer through works of art.

Learning Objectives

Recognize and interpret the use of rhythm in a piece of work of art

Central Takeaways

Fundamental Points

• Rhythm may be generally defined as a "movement marked past the regulated succession of stiff and weak elements, or of reverse or dissimilar conditions" (Anon. 1971).
• Rhythm may besides refer to visual presentation as "timed movement through infinite " (Jirousek 1995), and a mutual linguistic communication of pattern unites rhythm with geometry.
• For instance, placing a crimson spiral at the lesser left and peak right, for example, will cause the centre to move from one screw, to the other, and everything in between. It is indicating motion in the piece by the repetition of elements and, therefore, can brand artwork seem active.

Key Terms

• symmetry:Verbal correspondence on either side of a dividing line, aeroplane, heart or axis. The satisfying arrangement of a counterbalanced distribution of the elements of a whole.

The principles of visual art are the rules, tools, and guidelines that artists use to organize the elements of in a piece of artwork. When the principles and elements are successfully combined, they aid in creating an aesthetically pleasing or interesting piece of work of art. While there is some variation among them, movement, unity, harmony, variety, residue, rhythm, emphasis, contrast , proportion, and pattern are usually sited every bit principles of art.

Rhythm (from Greek rhythmos, "whatever regular recurring motion, symmetry " (Liddell and Scott 1996)) may exist generally defined as a "movement marked by the regulated succession of strong and weak elements, or of opposite or unlike weather" (Betimes. 1971). This general meaning of regular recurrence or pattern in time may be practical to a wide diversity of cyclical natural phenomena having a periodicity or frequency of anything from microseconds to millions of years. In the performing arts, rhythm is the timing of events on a human scale, of musical sounds and silences, of the steps of a dance, or the meter of spoken language and poetry. Rhythm may likewise refer to visual presentation, equally "timed movement through space" (Jirousek 1995), and a common linguistic communication of pattern unites rhythm with geometry.

In a visual limerick , pattern and rhythm are mostly expressed past showing consistency with colors or lines . For instance, placing a red spiral at the lesser left and elevation right, for example, will cause the heart to motility from one screw, to the other, and then to the infinite in between. The repetition of elements creates movement of the viewer 'southward eye and can, therefore, make the artwork experience active. Hilma af Klint's Svanen (The Swan) exemplifies the visual representation of rhythm using color and symmetry.

Hilma af Klint, Svanen (The Swan), 1914: Color and symmetry piece of work together in this painting to guide the heart of the viewer in a particular visual rhythm.

Proportion and Scale

Proportion is a measurement of the size and quantity of elements within a composition.

Learning Objectives

Apply the concept of proportion to unlike works of art

Cardinal Takeaways

Key Points

• Hierarchical proportion is a technique used in fine art, mostly in sculpture and painting, in which the creative person uses unnatural proportion or scale to depict the relative importance of the figures in the artwork.
• Mathematically, proportion is the relation betwixt elements and a whole. In architecture, the whole is not merely a building merely the set up and setting of the site.
• Among the various ancient artistic traditions, the harmonic proportions, human proportions, cosmic orientations, various aspects of sacred geometry , and small whole-number ratios were all practical as role of the practice of architectural blueprint.

Key Terms

• gilt ratio:The irrational number (approximately 1·618), usually denoted by the Greek alphabetic character φ (phi), which is equal to the sum of its ain reciprocal and i, or, equivalently, is such that the ratio of 1 to the number is equal to the ratio of its reciprocal to 1. Some twentieth-century artists and architects accept proportioned their works to judge this—specially in the form of the golden rectangle, in which the ratio of the longer side to the shorter equals this number—believing this proportion to be aesthetically pleasing.

Proportion is a measurement of the size and quantity of elements within a limerick . Hierarchical proportion is a technique used in art, mostly in sculpture and painting, in which the creative person uses unnatural proportion or scale to depict the relative importance of the figures in the artwork. In ancient Egyptian art, for example, gods and important political figures appear much larger than common people. Beginning with the Renaissance , artists recognized the connectedness between proportion and perspective , and the illusion of three-dimensional space . Images of the homo torso in exaggerated proportion were used to depict the reality an creative person interpreted.

Depiction of Narmer from the Narmer Palette: Narmer, a Predynastic ruler, accompanied by men carrying the standards of various local gods. This piece demonstrates the ancient Egyptians' use of proportion, with Narmer appearing larger than the other figures depicted.

Mathematically, proportion is the relation betwixt elements and a whole. In architecture, the whole is not just a edifice merely the set and setting of the site. The things that make a edifice and its site "well shaped" include everything from the orientation of the site and the buildings on it, to the features of the grounds on which it is situated. Low-cal, shade, air current, summit , and choice of materials all relate to a standard of architectural proportion.

Architecture has often used proportional systems to generate or constrain the forms considered suitable for inclusion in a building. In almost every building tradition, there is a system of mathematical relations which governs the relationships between aspects of the pattern. These systems of proportion are oft quite uncomplicated: whole number ratios or incommensurable ratios (such equally the golden ratio) were determined using geometrical methods. Generally, the goal of a proportional system is to produce a sense of coherence and harmony among the elements of a building.

Among the various aboriginal artistic traditions, the harmonic proportions, man proportions, cosmic orientations, various aspects of sacred geometry, and small whole-number ratios were all practical as part of the practice of architectural design. For instance, the Greek classical architectural orders are all proportioned rather than dimensioned or measured modules, because the earliest modules were not based on torso parts and their spans (fingers, palms, hands, and feet), only rather on column diameters and the widths of arcades and fenestrations .

Temple of Portanus: The Greek Temple of Portanus is an example of classical Greek architecture with its tetrastyle portico of four Ionic columns.

Typically, one ready of column diameter modules used for casework and architectural moldings by the Egyptians and Romans is based on the proportions of the palm and the finger, while some other less frail module—used for door and window trim, tile work, and roofing in Mesopotamia and Greece—was based on the proportions of the paw and the pollex.

Dating back to the Pythagoreans, at that place was an idea that proportions should be related to standards, and that the more than general and formulaic the standards, the better. This concept—that at that place should be beauty and elegance evidenced by a skillful limerick of well understood elements—underlies mathematics, art, and architecture. The classical standards are a series of paired opposites designed to expand the dimensional constraints of harmony and proportion.

Infinite

Space in fine art can exist divers equally the area that exists between two identifiable points.

Learning Objectives

Define infinite in fine art and list means information technology is employed past artists

Fundamental Takeaways

Cardinal Points

• The organisation of infinite is referred to as composition and is an essential component to any work of art.
• The space of an artwork includes the background, foreground, and middle ground , too as the distance between, effectually, and inside things.
• There are 2 types of space: positive space and negative space.
• After spending hundreds of years developing linear perspective , Western creative notions near the accurate depiction of space went through a radical shift at the first of the 20th century.
• Cubism and subsequent modernist movements represented an important shift in the use of space within Western fine art, which is still being felt today.

Key Terms

• space:The distance or empty surface area between things.
• Cubism:An artistic move in the early on 20th century characterized by the delineation of natural forms equally geometric structures of planes.

The organization of space in art is referred to as composition, and is an essential component of any piece of work of art. Space can exist by and large divers every bit the surface area that exists betwixt whatsoever two identifiable points.

Space is conceived of differently in each medium . The space in a painting, for example, includes the background, foreground and middle ground, while 3-dimensional space, similar sculpture or installation , volition involve the distance betwixt, around, and within points of the work. Infinite is further categorized as positive or negative. "Positive space" can be defined as the subject area of an artwork, while "negative space" can exist divers equally the space around the subject.

Over the ages, space has been conceived of in various ways. Artists have devoted a great deal of time to experimenting with perspectives and degrees of flatness of the pictorial aeroplane .

The perspective system has been a highly employed convention in Western fine art. Visually, it is an illusionist phenomenon, well suited to realism and the depiction of reality as it appears. After spending hundreds of years developing linear perspective, Western creative conventions about the authentic depiction of infinite went through a radical shift at the commencement of the 20th century. The innovations of Cubism and subsequent modernist movements represented an of import shift in the employ of space inside Western fine art, the affect of which is nonetheless being felt.

Pablo Picasso, Les Demoiselles d'Avignon, 1907: Les Demoiselles d'Avignon is an case of cubist fine art, which has a tendency to flatten the picture plane, and its use of abstract shapes and irregular forms propose multiple points of view within a single prototype.

Two-Dimensional Space

Ii-dimensional, or bi-dimensional, infinite is a geometric model of the planar projection of the physical universe in which we live.

Learning Objectives

Discuss two-dimensional space in art and the physical backdrop on which it is based

Key Takeaways

Key Points

• In physical terms, dimension refers to the elective structure of all space and its position in fourth dimension.
• Drawing is a grade of visual art that makes use of any number of instruments to mark a two-dimensional medium .
• About any dimensional course can be represented past some combination of the cube, sphere, cylinder, and cone. Once these basic shapes have been assembled into a likeness, then the drawing can exist refined into a more authentic and polished grade.

Key Terms

• dimension:A single aspect of a given thing. A measure of spatial extent in a item direction, such every bit summit, width or breadth, or depth.
• Two-Dimensional:Existing in 2 dimensions. Not creating the illusion of depth.
• Planar:Of or pertaining to a plane. Apartment, two-dimensional.

Ii dimensional, or bi-dimensional, infinite is a geometric model of the planar project of the physical universe in which we live. The two dimensions are normally called length and width. Both directions lie on the same plane . In physics, our bi-dimensional space is viewed as a planar representation of the space in which we move.

Mathematical delineation of bi-dimensional infinite: Bi-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system.

In art composition , drawing is a form of visual art that makes employ of any number of cartoon instruments to marker a two-dimensional medium (meaning that the object does not have depth). One of the simplest and most efficient means of communicating visual ideas, the medium has been a pop and key means of public expression throughout human history. Additionally, the relative availability of basic drawing instruments makes drawing more universal than well-nigh other media.

Measuring the dimensions of a bailiwick while blocking in the drawing is an important step in producing a realistic rendition of a subject. Tools such as a compass can be used to measure the angles of different sides. These angles can be reproduced on the drawing surface and then rechecked to make sure they are authentic. Another course of measurement is to compare the relative sizes of different parts of the subject with each other. A finger placed at a signal along the cartoon implement can be used to compare that dimension with other parts of the image. A ruler can be used both as a straightedge and a device to compute proportions. When attempting to draw a complicated shape such as a human figure, it is helpful at first to stand for the form with a set of primitive shapes.

Almost any dimensional form can exist represented by some combination of the cube, sphere, cylinder, and cone. Once these basic shapes have been assembled into a likeness, then the drawing can be refined into a more accurate and polished form. The lines of the primitive shapes are removed and replaced by the final likeness. A more than refined art of figure drawing relies upon the artist possessing a deep agreement of anatomy and the human proportions. A trained artist is familiar with the skeleton structure, joint location, muscle placement, tendon movement, and how the different parts piece of work together during motility. This allows the creative person to render more than natural poses that practise not announced artificially stiff. The artist is as well familiar with how the proportions vary depending on the age of the subject field, especially when cartoon a portrait.

Cartoon human being figures: Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec'due south Madame Palmyre with Her Dog, 1897.

Linear Perspective and Three-Dimensional Space

Perspective is an approximate representation on a apartment surface of an image as it is seen by the eye.

Learning Objectives

Explain perspective and its bear upon on fine art composition

Key Takeaways

Key Points

• Systematic attempts to evolve a system of perspective are usually considered to take begun around the 5th century B.C. in the fine art of Ancient Greece.
• The earliest art paintings and drawings typically sized objects and characters hierarchically according to their spiritual or thematic importance, not their distance from the viewer .
• In Medieval Europe, the use and sophistication of attempts to convey distance increased steadily but without a footing in a systematic theory.
• By the Renaissance , virtually every artist in Italy used geometrical perspective in their paintings, both to portray depth and likewise as a new and "of the moment" compositional method.

Key Terms

• curvilinear:Having bends; curved; formed by curved lines.
• horizon line:A horizontal line in perspective drawing, directly reverse the viewer'southward center and ofttimes unsaid, that represents objects infinitely far away and determines the angle or perspective from which the viewer sees the piece of work.
• vanishing point:The point in a perspective cartoon at which parallel lines receding from an observer seem to converge.
• Perspective:The technique of representing three-dimensional objects on a 2-dimensional surface.

In art, perspective is an approximate representation on a flat surface of an image every bit it is seen by the eye, calculated by bold a particular vanishing indicate . Systematic attempts to evolve a organisation of perspective are usually considered to have begun around the 5th century BCE in the art of Ancient Hellenic republic. Past the later periods of antiquity , artists—especially those in less pop traditions—were well aware that distant objects could be shown smaller than those close at manus for increased illusionism. But whether this convention was actually used in a work depended on many factors. Some of the paintings found in the ruins of Pompeii evidence a remarkable realism and perspective for their fourth dimension.

The earliest art paintings and drawings typically sized objects and characters hierarchically co-ordinate to their spiritual or thematic importance, not their distance from the viewer. The near important figures are frequently shown as the highest in a composition , besides from hieratic motives, leading to the "vertical perspective" common in the art of Ancient Egypt , where a grouping of "nearer" figures are shown below the larger effigy(s).

The fine art of the Migration Period had no tradition of attempting compositions of large numbers of figures, and Early Medieval art was boring and inconsistent in relearning the convention from classical models, though the procedure tin be seen underway in Carolingian art. European Medieval artists were enlightened of the full general principle of varying the relative size of elements co-ordinate to distance, and use and composure of attempts to convey distance increased steadily during the menses, but without a basis in a systematic theory.

Past the Renaissance, however, nearly every artist in Italy used geometrical perspective in their paintings. Non merely was this use of perspective a fashion to portray depth, simply information technology was also a new method of composing a painting. Paintings began to show a single, unified scene, rather than a combination of several. For a while, perspective remained the domain of Florence. Gradually, and partly through the motion of academies of the arts, the Italian techniques became part of the training of artists across Europe and, later, other parts of the earth.

Perspective in Renaissance Painting: Pietro Perugino'south usage of perspective in this fresco at the Sistine Chapel (1481–82) helped bring the Renaissance to Rome.

A drawing has one-point perspective when information technology contains only one vanishing point on the horizon line . This type of perspective is typically used for images of roads, railway tracks, hallways, or buildings viewed so that the forepart is directly facing the viewer. Whatever objects that are made upwards of lines either straight parallel with the viewer's line of sight or directly perpendicular (the railroad slats) can be represented with one-point perspective. These parallel lines converge at the vanishing point.

Two-bespeak perspective can be used to draw the same objects as one-point perspective, but rotated—such as looking at the corner of a house, or looking at two forked roads compress into the distance. In looking at a house from the corner, for instance, one wall would recede towards one vanishing indicate and the other wall would recede towards the opposite vanishing point.

Three-indicate perspective is used for buildings depicted from in a higher place or below. In improver to the ii vanishing points from before, one for each wall, there is now a third one for how those walls recede into the ground . This third vanishing point would be below the ground.

4-point perspective is the curvilinear variant of ii-bespeak perspective. The resulting elongated frame tin be used both horizontally and vertically. Similar all other foreshortened variants of perspective, four-point perspective starts off with a horizon line, followed by four equally spaced vanishing points to delineate four vertical lines. Because vanishing points exist only when parallel lines are nowadays in the scene, a perspective with no vanishing points ("zero-betoken") occurs if the viewer is observing a not-rectilinear scene. The well-nigh mutual instance of a nonlinear scene is a natural scene (e.g., a mountain range), which frequently does not contain any parallel lines. A perspective without vanishing points can even so create a sense of depth.

Distortions of Space and Foreshortening

Distortion is used to create diverse representations of space in two-dimensional works of art.

Learning Objectives

Place how distortion is both employed and avoided in works of fine art

Key Takeaways

Key Points

• Perspective projection distortion is the inevitable misrepresentation of three-dimensional infinite when drawn or "projected" onto a two-dimensional surface. It is impossible to accurately depict three-dimensional reality on a two-dimensional aeroplane .
• Still, in that location are several constructs available which allow for seemingly accurate representation. Perspective projection can be used to mirror how the eye sees past the use of one or more vanishing points .
• Although distortion tin be irregular or follow many patterns, the most commonly encountered distortions in composition , especially in photography, are radially symmetric, or approximately so, arising from the symmetry of a photographic lens.

Key Terms

• radial:Arranged like rays that radiate from, or converge into, a mutual center
• projection:The paradigm that a translucent object casts onto another object.
• foreshortening:A technique for creating the appearance that the object of a cartoon is extending into space by shortening the lines with which that object is drawn.

A distortion is the alteration of the original shape (or other characteristic) of an object, image, sound, or other course of information or representation. Distortion tin be wanted or unwanted by the artist. Distortion is ordinarily unwanted when it concerns physical deposition of a work. However, information technology is more than usually referred to in terms of perspective, where it is employed to create realistic representations of space in two-dimensional works of art.

Perspective Projection Baloney

Perspective projection distortion is the inevitable misrepresentation of 3-dimensional space when drawn or "projected" onto a ii-dimensional surface. It is impossible to accurately depict iii-dimensional reality on a two-dimensional plane. However, there are several constructs available that allow for seemingly authentic representation. The most common of these is perspective projection. Perspective projection tin be used to mirror how the eye sees by making utilise of one or more vanishing points.

Giotto, Lamentation (The Mourning of Christ), 1305–1306: Giotto is i of the most notable pre-Renaissance artists to recognize baloney on ii-dimensional planes.

Foreshortening

Foreshortening is the visual upshot or optical illusion that causes an object or altitude to appear shorter than it actually is because information technology is angled toward the viewer . Although foreshortening is an of import element in art where visual perspective is being depicted, foreshortening occurs in other types of two-dimensional representations of iii-dimensional scenes, such every bit oblique parallel project drawings.

The physiological ground of visual foreshortening was undefined until the twelvemonth 1000 when the Arabian mathematician and philosopher, Alhazen, in his Perspectiva, first explained that light projects conically into the eye. A method for presenting foreshortened geometry systematically onto a plane surface was unknown for another 300 years. The artist Giotto may take been the first to recognize that the image beheld by the eye is distorted: to the eye, parallel lines announced to intersect (like the distant edges of a path or road), whereas in "undistorted" nature, they practise non. In many of Giotto's paintings, perspective is employed to achieve various baloney effects.

Foreshortening: This painting illustrates Melozzo da Forlì's usage of upward foreshortening in his frescoes at The Basilica della Santa Casa.

Distortion in Photography

In photography, the projection mechanism is calorie-free reflected from an object. To execute a cartoon using perspective projection, projectors emanate from all points of an object and intersect at a station point. These projectors intersect with an imaginary plane of project and an image is created on the plane by the points of intersection. The resulting image on the project plane reproduces the image of the object equally it is beheld from the station bespeak.

Radial distortion can normally exist classified as one of 2 main types: barrel distortion and pincushion baloney. Barrel distortion occurs when prototype magnification decreases with distance from the optical axis. The apparent effect is that of an prototype which has been mapped around a sphere (or butt). Fisheye lenses, which take hemispherical views, utilize this type of distortion equally a way to map an infinitely wide object plane into a finite prototype area.

On the other paw, in pincushion baloney, the prototype magnification increases with the distance from the optical axis. The visible upshot is that lines that practise non go through the center of the paradigm are bowed inward, towards the heart of the image, like a pincushion. A certain corporeality of pincushion baloney is often constitute with visual optical instruments (i.e., binoculars), where information technology serves to eliminate the earth outcome.

Cylindrical perspective is a form of distortion caused by fisheye and panoramic lenses, which reproduce straight horizontal lines to a higher place and below the lens axis level as curved, while reproducing straight horizontal lines on lens axis level as straight. This is likewise a common characteristic of wide-bending anamorphic lenses of less than 40mm focal length in cinematography. Essentially it is just barrel baloney, but only in the horizontal plane. It is an artifact of the squeezing procedure that anamorphic lenses do to fit widescreen images onto standard-width film.

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Source: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-arthistory/chapter/visual-elements/

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